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Bellwood, Peter (1997). "Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago". Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago: Revised Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. pp.205–211. ISBN 0824818830. JSTOR j.ctt24hf81. A paddy field is a flooded field of arable land used for growing semiaquatic crops, most notably rice and taro. It originates from the Neolithic rice-farming cultures of the Yangtze River basin in southern China, associated with pre-Austronesian and Hmong-Mien cultures. It was spread in prehistoric times by the expansion of Austronesian peoples to Island Southeast Asia, Southeast Asia including Northeastern India, Madagascar, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. The technology was also acquired by other cultures in mainland Asia for rice farming, spreading to East Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, and South Asia. The reasons paddies tend to be small is that they are usually farmed by itinerant farmers who cannot pay to have their field leveled to a single elevation for equal flooding. Each of the paddies tends to be level throughout but not with the other paddies. Different levels also allows excess water to flow to paddies of lower elevation. The result showed that the social performance of workers and farmers in Malaysia was better than Iran because of low cost with high yield for farmers, contributing to increased income. Rice cultivation in Iran for local community did not show good performance regarding health and safety because of burning of rice residue. Around 62% of local Iranian people reported air pollution from rice residue burning. However, the overall social performance for local community was not different in Iran and Malaysia, showing good performances with respect to job opportunity. Sexual harassment was identified as one of the negative social issues in Iran with the score of 60%, including unwanted sexual attention. Moreover, the farmers showed poor performance in Iran, resulting from low satisfactory from income, and low yield and high cost of paddy production in Iran. Conclusion
Kwak, Jong-chul. Urinara-eui Seonsa – Godae Non Bat Yugu [Dry- and Wet-field Agricultural Features of the Korean Prehistoric].In Hanguk Nonggyeong Munhwa-eui Hyeongseong [The Formation of Agrarian Societies in Korea]: 21–73. Papers of the 25th National Meetings of the Korean Archaeological Society, Busan, 2001. No doubt, rice paddy is scarce these days in the markets, and this is because the wet season production wasn’t all that impressive due to the flood. However, the issue of paddy scarcity will soon be over as the dry season harvest will start arriving in the next four weeks,” he stated.I hardly find enough of paddy to run my mill as required. Last year’s flooding may have played a role in the scarcity we are now experiencing,” Lan said. The result for the workers of rice cultivation showed bad performance in Iran with regarding to health and safety, wage, and worker satisfactory. The result for worker in Malaysia showed good performance in health and safety dimension (87%). Chang YJ, Nguyen TD, Finkbeiner M, Krüger J (2016) Adapting ergonomic assessments to social life cycle assessment. Procedia CIRP 40:91–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.01.064 To date, there are several S-LCA researches in the agricultural sector globally, such as olive production in Italy (Iofrida et al. 2020), pork in Sweden (Zira et al. 2020), cocoa in Malaysia (Sharaai et al. 2020), honey in Italy (D’Eusanio et al. 2018), dairy farm in Ireland (Chen and Holden 2017), citrus in Italy (Iofrida et al. 2019), soybean in Brazil (Pashaei Kamali et al. 2017), sugar in Thailand (Prasara-A and Gheewala 2018), and milk (Revéret et al. 2015), and eggs in Canada (Pelletier 2018). Only a limited study (Prasara-A and Gheewala 2019) considered the S-LCA of rice production in Thailand. The majority of sustainability evaluation studies of rice production focused on environmental sustainability. The social performance of paddy rice is hardly regarded.
Fields can be built into steep hillsides as terraces or adjacent to depressed or steeply sloped features such as rivers or marshes. They require a great deal of labor and materials to create and need large quantities of water for irrigation. Oxen and water buffalo, adapted for life in wetlands, are important working animals used extensively in paddy field farming. Ariyarathna S, Siriwardhana H, Danthurebandara M (2016) Life cycle assessment of rice processing in Sri Lanka: modern and conventional processing. In: 2016 Moratuwa Engineering Research Conference (MERCon). IEEE, pp 297–302
Manik Y, Leahy J, Halog A (2013) Social life cycle assessment of palm oil biodiesel: a case study in Jambi Province of Indonesia. Int J Life Cycle Assess 18:1386–1392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0581-5 Sexual harassment was identified as one of the negative social issue in Iran with the score of 60% including unwanted sexual attention. In addition, most of the female workers did not prefer to work without their family (husband) in remote farms because they were afraid of sexual harassment. The outcomes of this research provide rich information about the positive and negative social performances of paddy rice production in northern Iran and western Peninsular Malaysia. The finding from this study indicated that the modern agriculture showed better performance for the worker and farmers. Health and safety for local community in modern agriculture showed better performance as a result of low rice residue burning and low air pollution.
Rice cultivation in Iran for the local community did not show good performance regarding health and safety because of burning of rice residue. Around 62% of local Iranian people reported air pollution from rice residue burning. However, the performance was good in Malaysia ad Iran in term of job opportunity for local community. Kalvani SR, Sharaai AH (2021) Social consideration in product life cycle for product social sustainability He explained, “At the beginning of harvest last year, one could get a bag of paddy for about N30,000. But as the months progressed, towards the end of January, it was N35,000 and it stayed there. But, it has peaked at N37,000 as cash becomes available again.To cultivate rice, there are several essential steps involved. These include land preparation, seed selection, transplanting or direct seeding, water management, fertilization, weed control, pest and disease management, crop monitoring and maintenance, and harvesting. Revéret J-P, Couture J-M, Parent J (2015) Socioeconomic LCA of milk production in Canada. In: Social life cycle assessment. Springer, pp 25–69
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