The Last Mughal: The Fall of Delhi, 1857

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Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire. [103] A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco. [103] a b Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). "Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals". Asian Perspectives. 33 (2): 294–295. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42928323. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 June 2021.

Main article: Government of the Mughal Empire India in 1605 and the end of emperor Akbar's reign; the map shows the different subahs, or provinces, of his administration The development of the Pehlwani style of Indian wrestling, a combination of Indian malla-yuddha and Persian varzesh-e bastani. [163] [164] Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, pp.186–, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote: "All these factors resulted in greater patronage of the arts, including textiles, paintings, architecture, jewelry, and weapons to meet the ceremonial requirements of kings and princes." Charles T. Evans. "The Gunpowder Empires". Northern Virginia Community College. Archived from the original on 26 May 2011 . Retrieved 28 December 2010. a b c Jean-Noël Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol. 4, pp. 1–13Pagaza, Ignacio; Argyriades, Demetrios (2009). Winning the Needed Change: Saving Our Planet Earth. IOS Press. p.129. ISBN 978-1-58603-958-5.

Both sides were accused of indiscriminate killings. The rebels killed British women and children. The British were blamed for mass executions of thousands of mutineers and their supporters. The development of Mughal clothing, jewelry and fashion, utilizing richly decorated fabrics such as muslin, silk, brocade and velvet. The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur, a chieftain from what is today Uzbekistan, who employed aid from the neighboring Safavid and Ottoman Empires, [13] to defeat the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, in the First Battle of Panipat, and to sweep down the plains of North India. The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar. [14] This imperial structure lasted until 1720, until shortly after the death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb, [15] [16] during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. Reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1760, the empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system, creating a uniform currency, and the unification of the country. [10] :185–204 The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct. [103] Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I, repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne", [43] as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat-e-Bara, whose leaders, the Sayyid Brothers, became the de facto sovereigns of the empire. [70] [71]The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance was carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps. [95] Suneja, Vivek (2000). Understanding Business: A Multidimensional Approach to the Market Economy. Psychology Press. p.13. ISBN 978-0-415-23857-1. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 9 August 2017. Richards, John F. (1995), The Mughal Empire, Cambridge University Press, p.2, ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 9 August 2017 Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the dynasty and the empire itself became indisputably Indian. The interests and futures of all concerned were in India, not in ancestral homelands in the Middle East or Central Asia. Furthermore, the Mughal Empire emerged from the Indian historical experience. It was the end product of a millennium of Muslim conquest, colonization, and state-building in the Indian subcontinent." Audrey Truschke (2021). the Language of History:Sanskrit Narratives of Indo-Muslim Rule. Publisher:Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-55195-3. Archived from the original on 3 April 2023 . Retrieved 19 March 2023.

Gérard Chaliand, A Global History of War: From Assyria to the Twenty-First Century, University of California Press, California 2014, p. 151 Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250tons annually, compared with 23,061tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771. [138] He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal. [138] The economy in the Indian Subcontinent during the Mughal era performed just as it did in ancient times, though now it would face the stress of extensive regional tensions. [102] The Mughal economy was large and prosperous. [103] [104] India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750. [105] [104] India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization, like that of 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution. [106]Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, pp.152–, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote: "Above all, the long period of relative peace ushered in by Akbar's power, and maintained by his successors, contributed to India's economic expansion." According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century. [120] This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per-capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910. [121] However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour. [122] In Mughal India, there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers, with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour. While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants. [122] Agriculture The historian Nizamuddin Ahmad (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships. [149] A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people, [149] with larger cities including Agra (in Agra Subah) with up to 800,000 people, Lahore (in Lahore Subah) with up to 700,000 people, [154] Dhaka (in Bengal Subah) with over 1 million people, [155] [ full citation needed] and Delhi (in Delhi Subah) with over 600,000 people. [156] Singhal, Damodar P. (1983). A History of the Indian People. Methuen. p.193. ISBN 978-0-413-48730-8. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2021.